Quick answer: the Bible names two sets of twelve stones. The first is the breastplate of the high priest in Exodus 28, set in four rows of three, each stone engraved with the name of one of the twelve tribes of Israel. The second is the twelve foundation stones of the New Jerusalem in Revelation 21. The modern names in English translations (sapphire, diamond, topaz, and so on) are often not the same minerals the ancient writers meant, and that translation puzzle is one of the most interesting stories in gem history.
The breastplate stones (Exodus 28:17 to 20)
In the King James Version, the four rows read:
- Row 1: sardius, topaz, carbuncle
- Row 2: emerald, sapphire, diamond
- Row 3: ligure, agate, amethyst
- Row 4: beryl, onyx, jasper
The original Hebrew names are odem, pitdah, bareqet; nophek, sappir, yahalom; leshem, shevo, achlamah; tarshish, shoham, yashpheh. Translators working centuries later had to guess which minerals those words referred to, usually by way of the Greek Septuagint translation. Some guesses hold up well. Others almost certainly do not.
Three famous mistranslations
“Sapphire” was probably lapis lazuli
The Hebrew sappir and the Greek sappheiros are the root of our word sapphire. But the Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder described sapphirus as an opaque blue stone sprinkled with specks of gold. That is a near-perfect description of lapis lazuli, whose golden flecks are pyrite. Blue corundum, the mineral we call sapphire today, was barely known in the ancient Near East.
“Diamond” almost certainly was not diamond
Every stone on the breastplate was engraved with a tribe’s name. Ancient engravers had no practical way to carve diamond, the hardest natural material (see the Mohs scale). Scholars suggest yahalom was something workable, perhaps a hard white or clear stone such as rock crystal quartz or onyx.
“Topaz” may have been peridot
The ancient Greek topazios was named after an island in the Red Sea, generally identified as Zabargad (St. John’s Island), which was famous for green peridot, not the mineral we now call topaz.
The stones that kept their names
A few identifications are on firmer ground. Amethyst (achlamah) is traditionally amethyst, and the Greek word amethystos, meaning “not intoxicated,” reflects an old belief that it protected against drunkenness. Agate and jasper were among the most widely carved stones of the ancient world, and both are varieties of quartz. “Sardius” is generally read as carnelian, a red chalcedony. “Carbuncle” was a catch-all for any glowing red stone, likely garnet. If you want to hold the same materials ancient engravers worked, our Agate & Jasper Tumbled Stone Lot — 12 Pieces and amethyst specimens such as the Lavender Amethyst Cluster — Brazil are a good start.
The twelve foundations of Revelation 21
Revelation 21:19 to 20 lists the twelve foundation stones of the city wall: jasper, sapphire, chalcedony, emerald, sardonyx, sardius, chrysolite, beryl, topaz, chrysoprase, jacinth, and amethyst. The list overlaps heavily with the breastplate, and the same translation issues apply. Notice how many are quartz family stones: jasper, chalcedony, sardonyx, sardius, chrysoprase, and amethyst. Six of twelve. Quartz was the workhorse gem of the ancient world, and it still is.
Revelation 21:11 also describes the city’s light as “like a jasper stone, clear as crystal,” which tells you ancient “jasper” did not mean only the opaque patterned stone the word means today.
From the breastplate to your birthstone
In the first century, the Jewish historian Josephus linked the twelve breastplate stones to the twelve months and the twelve signs of the zodiac. Over the following centuries that idea grew into the custom of wearing a stone for each month. In 1912 American jewelers standardized the modern birthstone list, and the link to the breastplate was mostly forgotten. Our post Birthstones Decoded covers what each modern birthstone is geologically.
Why this matters to collectors
Gem names are human inventions, and they drift. The same word has meant different minerals in different centuries, which is why mineralogists rely on chemistry and crystal structure rather than names. It is also a good reminder to ask “which mineral is this, really?” whenever a stone is sold under an old or poetic name. For more on what makes a purple quartz purple, read Amethyst: Why Quartz Turns Purple.
